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Much, many, little, few, some, any: grammar
 
many/much
 
many for countable, much for uncountable in (?) (-)
 
We use many before plural (countable) nouns and much before uncountable nouns. We use them in negative sentences and questions. We don’t normally use them in affirmative sentences.
There isn’t much coffee in the jar.
Were there many people in the party?
 
too much/too many
 
Note that we don’t normally use much/many in affirmative sentences, but we can use too much and too many in affirmative sentences.
There’s too much salt in the soup.
You eat too many biscuits.
 
how much/how many
 
We use how many and how much to ask about quantity.
How many concerts have you ever been to?
How much coffee have you had today?
 
a lot of/lots of
 
Before both countable and uncountable
 
We use a lot of or lots of (more informal) before both plural (countable) and uncountable nouns. We normally use them in positive sentences.
She spends a lot of time watching TV.
We had lots of good moments together.
 
of before noun; no of at the end of sentence
 
We must always use a lot of or lots of including of before a noun. However, we can use the expressions a lot or lots (without of) at the end of a sentence.
‘How many beers did you have?’ ‘I don’t know; I had lots/a lot.’
I like her a lot.
 
(a) few/(a) little/a bit of
 
few for countable; little for uncountable
 
We use (a) few before plural (countable) nouns and (a) little or a bit of (more informal) before uncountable nouns.
I have to do a few things this afternoon.
He always gets good results with very little effort.
Can you put a bit of sugar in the tea?
 
few or a few? little or a little?
 
A few means ‘some but not many; enough’, and a little means ‘some but not much; enough’ .
Few/little mean ‘almost none; not enough’.
Normally, the difference between a few/little (WITH a) and few/little (WITHOUT a) is that a few/little is positive in meaning, and few/little is negative. Compare:
There’s little milk in the fridge; we have to buy more. (Not enough; we need more)
‘Shall I buy some beers?’ ‘No, it’s OK, there are a few in the fridge.’ (=Enough; we don’t need more)
‘Do you speak English?’ ‘No, I speak very little English.’ (=Negative)
‘Do you speak English?’ ‘Yes, I speak a little English.’ (=Positive)
 
some/any
 
some for (+); any for (?) (-)
 
We use some in affirmative sentences and any in negative sentences and questions.
Is there any sugar in the cupboard?
Have you got any new friends?
I have some questions to ask you.
 
With both countable (plural) and uncountable
 
Both some and any can be used before countable and uncountable nouns. But if we use them before a countable noun, the noun must be in the plural form.
Are there any students in the classroom? (NOT Is there any student in the classroom?)
 
some for offers and requests
 
We use some (NOT any) in interrogative sentences when we are offering or requesting (=asking for) something.
Would you like some help?
Can I have some tea, please?
 


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A.Explain the following term

i.Ecologicalsere: An ecological sere is a sequence of communities that develop over time in a given area, as the environment changes. It is a concept used in ecology to describe the development of an ecosystem over time.

ii.Xerosere: A xerosere is a sequence of plant communities that develop in response to increasing aridity or drought conditions. It is one of the major types of ecological succession, and is characterized by an increase in drought-tolerant species as the environment becomes drier.

iii.Euthrification: Eutrophication is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched with nutrients, leading to increased growth of aquatic plants and algae. This process can occur naturally, but it can also be accelerated by human activities such as fertilizer runoff from agricultural land or sewage discharge into rivers and lakes.

iv.Biosphere: The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems, including both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and their interactions with each other and with their physical environment. It includes all living organisms on Earth, as well as their interactions with each other and with their physical environment.

v.Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.


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✅ Important Points to Remember: Electrochemistry – Galvanic Cells


✍️ A galvanic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy into  electrical energy. The electrochemical cell which converts electrical energy into chemical energy is called electrolytic cell.

✍️ Electrochemical cells are also called galvanic or voltaic cells, after the names of Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta who were the first to perform experiments on the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.

✍️ In a salt bridge, the electrolytes like KCl, KNO3 or NH4NO3 are preferred because their ions have almost equal transport number, viz., 0.5, i.e., they move with almost the same speed when an electric current flows through the

✍️ Galvanic cells are used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Two electrodes are usually set up in two separate beakers. The electrolytes taken in the two beakers are different. Galvanic cells are based upon spontaneous redox reactions. A salt bridge is used to set up this cell.

✍️ An anode is an electrode where oxidation takes place. An anode is a negative pole in a galvanic cell. In an electrolytic cell, the anode acts as the positive pole. Cathodes are electrodes where reduction takes place.

✍️ Greater the oxidation potential of metal, the more easily it can lose electrons and hence greater is its reactivity. As a result, a metal with greater oxidation potential can displace metals with lower oxidation potentials from their salt solutions.


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♦️Non-continuous Verbs♦️
Non-continuous verbs are verbs that we do not normally use with continuous tenses. These "stative" verbs are about state, not action, and they cannot express the continuous or progressive aspect. Here are some of the most common non-continuous verbs:


♦️Mental and Emotional States♦️
Believe - I believe what you say.
Dislike - She dislikes eating pizza.
Doubt - I doubt what you say is true.
Imagine - He imagines he needs some time off work.
Know - I know Tom very well.
Like - I like watching TV in the evening.
Love - They love to visit friends.
Hate - I hate to see him suffer.
Prefer - They prefer to take tests on Monday.
Realize - She realizes that it was her mistake.
Recognize - Peter recognizes his mistake.
Remember - I remember that day very well.
Suppose - I suppose you are right.
Understand - Tim understands the situation.
Want - I want to wish you well.
Wish - I wish life were easier.
                            

                   ♦️Sense♦️
Appear - It appears to be finished.
Feel - I feel cold now.
Hear - I hear what you are saying.
See - I see that it's difficult.
Seem - It seems rather simple to me.
Smell - It smells like a rat.
Sound - It sounds like a good idea.
Taste - It tastes like almonds.



              ♦️Communication♦️
Agree - I agree we need to finish the project.
Astonish - He astonishes me every time.
Deny - The criminal denies any wrong doing.
Disagree - I disagree with what you say.
Impress - He impresses his teachers at school.
Mean - I mean that very honestly.
Please - She pleases her students every day in class.
Promise - I promise I'm not telling a lie.
Satisfy - She satisfies all the requirements.
Surprise - It surprises me every time.


               ♦️Other States♦️
Be - I'm a teacher.
Belong - It belongs to Tom.
Concern - It concerns all of us.
Consist - It consists of chocolate, cream and cookies.
Contain - The letter contains a threat.
Cost - The jeans cost $100.
Depend - It depends on how you look at it.
Deserve - You deserve much better.
Fit - That doesn't fit my schedule.
Include - The vacation includes all meals.
Involve - The job involves lots of travel.
Lack - It lacks any meaning.
Matter - It doesn't matter what you think.
Need - I need some time off.
Owe - He owes you a lot of money.
Own - I own a Porsche.
Possess - Jack possesses all the right skills.

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Biochemical Tests & Chromatography
Biochemical tests

1. Tests for carbohydrates in the laboratory
Benedict’s test used to identify reducing sugars (monosaccharides and some disaccharides)

Add Benedict’s solution to the chemical sample and heat.

The solution changes from blue to brick-red or yellow if a reducing sugar is present.

Non-reducing sugar test used to test for non-reducing sugars, e.g. the disaccharide, sucrose
First a Benedict’s test is performed.

If the Benedict’s test is negative, the sample is hydrolysed by heating with hydrochloric acid, then neutralised with sodium hydrogen carbonate.

This breaks the glycosidic bond of the disaccharide, releasing the monomers.

A second Benedict’s test is performed which will be positive because the monomers are now free.

Starch test

Add iodine solution to the sample.
If starch is present the colour changes to blue-black.

All the biochemical tests need to be learned. This work is good value because they are regularly tested in 2 or 3 mark question components.

2. Tests for lipids in the laboratory
Emulsion test used to identify fats and oils

Add ethanol to the sample, shake, then pour the mixture into water.
If fats or oils are present then a white emulsion appears at the surface.

3. Tests for proteins in the laboratory
Biuret test used to identify any protein

Add dilute sodium hydroxide and dilute copper sulphate to the sample.
A violet colour appears if a protein is present.


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