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Chemistry Grade 1* Unit 2
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✅ Atomic and Molecular Masses

✅ Mole Concept:

✅ Molarity:
Molarity is a measure of the concentration of a solution, defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. It is represented by the symbol M and is calculated using the formula:

Molarity (M) = moles of solute / liters of solution

For example, if you have a solution containing 1 mole of sugar (C12H22O11) dissolved in enough water to make a total volume of 1 liter, the molarity of the solution would be:

Molarity (M) = 1 mole C12H22O11 / 1 liter solution = 1 M

✅ Molality:
Molality is another measure of concentration, defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. It is represented by the symbol m and is calculated using the formula:

Molality (m) = moles of solute / kilograms of solvent

For example, if you have a solution containing 1 mole of NaCl dissolved in 1 kilogram of water, the molality of the solution would be:

Molality (m) = 1 mole NaCl / 1 kilogram H2O = 1 m

✅ Percentage Composition:
Percentage composition is a measure of the percentage by mass of each element in a compound. To calculate the percentage composition, you need to know the molar mass of the compound and the molar mass of each element within the compound. The formula for percentage composition is:

Percentage composition (% by mass) = (molar mass of element / molar mass of compound) x 100%

For example, to calculate the percentage composition of carbon in glucose (C6H12O6), you would use the following values:

Molar mass of C6H12O6 = 180.156 g/mol
Molar mass of C = 12.011 g/mol
Molar mass of H = 1.008 g/mol
Molar mass of O = 16.00 g/mol

Percentage composition of carbon (% by mass) = (12.011 g/mol / 180.156 g/mol) x 100% ≈ 6.67%
Percentage composition of hydrogen (% by mass) = (12.011 g/mol / 180.156 g/mol) x 100% ≈ 6.67%
Percentage composition of oxygen (% by mass) = (16.00 g/mol / 180.156 g/mol) x 100% ≈ 33.33%
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Mee 'react' godha
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Chemistry Grade 1* Unit 2
Coming soon....
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GRADE 12 BIOLOGY UNIT 3
ABOUT CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration is a critical metabolic process that occurs in the cells of all living organisms, including plants, animals, and microbes. It is the process by which cells convert the energy stored in organic molecules, such as glucose, into a usable form of energy called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The energy stored in ATP is then used to fuel various cellular activities, including growth, maintenance, and reproduction.

The process of cellular respiration can be broken down into three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.

1. Glycolysis: Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration, during which glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate. This process occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and generates a small amount of ATP. Glycolysis is an anaerobic process, meaning it does not require oxygen.
2. Link Reaction: The link reaction, also known as the pyruvate decarboxylation reaction, occurs between glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. In this reaction, pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA, a molecule that can be used in the Krebs cycle to generate more ATP. The link reaction takes place within the mitochondrial matrix and is crucial for transporting the energy derived from glucose into the Krebs cycle.
3. Krebs Cycle: The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is the second stage of cellular respiration. Acetyl-CoA enters the mitochondria, where it participates in a series of chemical reactions that generate more ATP, as well as electrons that are carried by NADH and FADH2. The Krebs cycle is an aerobic process, meaning it requires oxygen.
4. Electron Transport Chain: The electron transport chain is the third and final stage of cellular respiration. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane, generating a proton gradient. This gradient is then used to produce ATP through a process called chemiosmosis. The electron transport chain is also an aerobic process and requires oxygen.

Cellular respiration is an essential process for all living organisms, as it provides the energy necessary for various biological functions. The link reaction plays a critical role in this process, as it allows the energy stored in glucose to be transferred from glycolysis into the Krebs cycle for further energy production.

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